The IPPMD partner countries represent a spectrum of income levels
Partner countries cover a range of migration contexts
Stakeholder interview covered a cross-section of institution types
The labour market situations vary enormously for the ten partner countries, 2015
Unemployment is most severe among young people, 2015
Agriculture is accounting for a declining share of employment, 2005–2015
Skills levels that are affected by emigration differ across the countries
Emigrants are more likely to have been employed than non-emigrants
In most countries, households receiving remittances from their emigrant members have the lowest share of working members
Self-employment accounts for a large share of employment in most countries
The share of self-employed people is higher among remittance-receiving households
Return migrants are more likely to be self-employed than non-migrants
Self-employment among return migrants is higher than before they left home
Households with return migrants are more likely to have a self-employed member
Occupational skills composition of non-migrants and return migrants differ
The share of employed adults is higher among immigrants than for the native population
Immigrant workers in Costa Rica and the Dominican Republic are more concentrated in lower skilled jobs
A higher share of beneficiaries from government employment agencies have no plans to emigrate than non-beneficiaries
The participation rate in vocational training programmes varies across IPPMD countries
The weight of agriculture in the economy varies by country
Emphasis on arable farming versus livestock production varies by country
The share and number of agricultural households sampled varies by country
Household farming activity mostly reflects the macroeconomic picture
In some countries, agricultural households with emigrants draw on more household labour
Households with emigrants are more likely to hire external agricultural labour
Households in several countries invest remittances into agricultural assets
Only in Burkina Faso are return migrant households more likely to have had agricultural expenditures
Only in the Dominican Republic are remittance-receiving agricultural households more likely to own a non-agricultural business
In some countries, agricultural households with return migrants are more likely to own a non-agricultural business
Households with immigrants are less likely to have their own agricultural activities
Households with immigrants can contribute to the creation of jobs
The influence of agricultural subsidies depends on the extent of structural transformation of the economy
Immigrants have less access to agricultural subsidies
In some countries, emigration is linked to agricultural training
Net enrolment rates in primary education and mean years of schooling vary in the ten partner countries
Public spending on education is not necessarily linked to enrolment rates and the pupil-teacher ratio
Share of population with post-secondary education varies significantly across countries
Individuals with post-secondary education are more likely to plan to emigrate
Links between school attendance and plans to emigrate, Burkina Faso and Cambodia
Emigrants from Côte d'Ivoire, Haiti and Morocco are the most likely to enhance their skills through migration
A large share of migrants return to the Dominican Republic, Morocco and Costa Rica with additional skills
Households receiving remittances spend more on education in five out of nine countries
Share of children attending private schools is higher among children in remittance-receiving households
Immigrants tend to have a lower level of education than native-born individuals
The share of education policy beneficiaries varies across countries
Conditional cash transfers for education may reduce emigration in the Dominican Republic and the Philippines
Households with immigrants have less access to education programmes
Possession of bank accounts and formal saving rates are positively correlated
Urban communities are better covered by financial service institutions
IPPMD countries vary enormously in their ease of doing business
Many households choose to repay debts after a member has emigrated
Remittance use for debt repayment is linked to emigration funded by loans
Households that receive remittances are often more likely to be business owners
Households not receiving remittances run slightly larger businesses
Real estate ownership is in general higher among remittance-receiving households
Households with return migrants are in general more likely to run a business
Households with return migrants are slightly more likely to own real estate
Households receiving remittances are substantially more likely to have bank accounts in a majority of the partner countries
Meeting bank requirements is a barrier to access in many countries
Remittance-receiving households with bank accounts receive more remittances on average
Few households participated in financial training programmes
Courses on entrepreneurship and business management are available in less than half of the communities in the sample
Health expenditures in the IPPMD countries vary widely as a share of GDP
Social expenditures in the IPPMD countries vary widely as a share of GDP
Rates of informal work vary enormously among IPPMD countries
Households with immigrants are less likely than households without immigrants to receive government transfers
Immigrant versus native-born individuals' use of health services varies across countries
There is little difference between how often immigrants and native-born individuals use health services
Households with immigrants in Costa Rica and the Dominican Republic are generally less likely to pay taxes than households without immigrants
Households with return migrants generally pay more direct taxes than those without
Immigrants are more likely to lack a formal labour contract
Remittances do not generally increase households' social expenditure
Public social expenditures reduce the rate of migration
Lack of formal labour contracts increases the rate of emigration
Individuals without formal contracts are more likely to be in receipt of remittances
Immigrants are less likely to have work-related health benefits
Emigration experience varies across the IPPMD countries
Cambodia has seen the greatest growth in emigration
Most emigrants move to high-income countries
The concentration of emigrants across destination countries varies widely across countries
Emigrants are typically the younger members of their household
Emigrants typically emigrate for labour-related reasons
Individuals planning to emigrate are more likely to have learned a foreign language
Emigrant households have fewer adult men than women
Emigrant households are more likely to be headed by women
Emigrant households are wealthier than non-migrant ones, on average
The contribution of remittances to GDP varies across the IPPMD countries
Armenia has seen the highest growth in remittance inflows, 2000-2015
The weight of remittances in GDP is generally related to a country's emigration rate
Migration and remittances are closely linked, but non-migrant households also receive remittances
More frequent remittances are linked to higher amounts of remittances
Male-headed households are more likely to run businesses
There is no evident link between government health expenditures and remittances used for health
Remittance costs vary greatly across remittance corridors
Households receiving remittances from former members are more likely to be headed by women
On average, most return migrants came back after less than a year abroad
A larger share of return migrants have come home from low and middle-income countries
Most return migrants surveyed came home because they prefer their country of origin
Households with return migrants in middle-income countries are more likely to have self-employed members in non-agriculture compared to households without returnees
Businesses run by households with return migrants are not always more likely to hire external employees than the businesses run by households without migrants
Return migrants tend to be better educated in most countries
It is not highly educated migrants who return more often in most countries
Return migrants are more often overqualified for their jobs than non-migrants
The higher the share of agricultural households benefiting from agricultural subsidies, the higher the share of households with return migrants
A higher share of return migrants plan to stay in the countries with higher expenditures on social protection
Immigration rates vary widely across countries
Morocco has seen the greatest growth in immigration, 2000-2015
Many immigrants come from a single neighbouring country
Immigrants have lived in their host country for more than ten years on average
Immigrants invest to varying degrees in their host country
Households with immigrants are more likely to own a non-agricultural business than households without them
The rate of immigrant overqualification varies by country
In some countries, formal labour contracts are linked with home ownership
The rate of irregular migration varies by country
Most immigrants in Burkina Faso are children of native-born parents
Immigrants with regular migration status are more likely to invest in the host country
Immigrants are more likely to lack formal education
Finding a job is the biggest challenge facing return migrants
Plans to migrate are correlated with participation in vocational training programmes