Approximately 1.7 million people in Canada self-identify as Indigenous, which is 5% of the total population. In Canada today, the Constitution Act (1982) recognises three groups: Indians (now referred to as First Nations), Inuit, and Métis. Among the three groups, First Nations are the largest (at 60% of the total), followed by Métis (36%), and Inuit (4%). Indigenous peoples make a vital contribution to the culture, heritage and economic development of Canada. This report mainly focusses on economic development issues for First Nations and Inuit. Further work is needed to engage with the particular circumstances of the Métis.

Geography is important to understanding Canada’s Indigenous economy and better data is needed to inform policy decision-making. The Indigenous population is distributed unevenly across Canada, ranging from as little as 2% of the population on Prince Edward Island (2 730 persons) to as much as 86% in Nunavut (30 545 persons) in 2016. The Indigenous population is more likely to be located in predominantly rural regions. Approximately 60% of Canada’s Indigenous population live in rural regions, compared to 27% for the non-Indigenous population. Although the well-being of the Indigenous population is improving, significant gaps compared to the non-Indigenous population remain, and these gaps are larger in rural than in urban areas. For example, the gap in the unemployment rate is 10 percentage points in rural remote areas, compared to 5 percentage points in urban areas. Indigenous communities in rural remote areas face a range of challenges associated with educational attainment, housing, water and sanitation, and digital connectivity. Although there have been significant advances in statistical frameworks to measure these issues, there is a need to improve business and economic data, and include Indigenous communities and institutions in decision-making about ongoing data collection efforts.

The purpose of this study is to provide recommendations to the Canadian Government about how to improve economic development outcomes for Indigenous peoples at a local and regional level. There is no simple way to summarise the colonial history and contemporary economic circumstances of Indigenous peoples in Canada. ‘Indigenous people’ is a heterogeneous term that refers to the original nations and peoples of what is now called Canada. In Canada today, the Constitution Act (1982) recognizes three groups: Indians (now referred to as First Nations), Inuit and Métis. This report mainly engages with economic development issues for First Nations and Inuit. Further work is needed to address the particular circumstances of the Métis. In past decades, the Canadian Government has made significant progress in recognising the right of Indigenous peoples to self-determination. Treaty rights were affirmed in the Constitution Act (1982) and the Canadian Government has committed to a nation-to-nation relationship with Indigenous peoples. This study, and its recommendations, are within the framework of this overarching commitment.

This chapter presents an overview of the constitutional, political and practical circumstances pertinent to linking Indigenous communities with regional development in Canada. It reviews the historical and current arrangements of First Nation, Inuit and Métis relations with Canadian institutions, and provides an introduction to three key debates: First Nations’ prospects for getting out from under the Indian Act; conflicts over land and resources management and; the role of Indigenous knowledge in contemporary decision-making.

The objective of this chapter is to assess economic development and well-being outcomes for Indigenous peoples in Canada, and how to improve statistical frameworks and data governance. The chapter begins by profiling Indigenous socio-economic and demographic trends. The chapter then examines Indigenous community well-being and the importance of geography particularly remoteness and its implications for economic development. Profiles of Indigenous businesses, entrepreneurship and community-led economic development are then discussed. The chapter ends with a discussion of how Indigenous data could be improved in terms of data collection and dissemination, with a specific focus on understanding Indigenous businesses and economies.

The objective of this chapter is to assess and provide recommendations about how to improve the ways Indigenous peoples in Canada secure and use land. The chapter starts by offering an historical contextualisation of Indigenous lands and explores how they can promote community development. The second section sets out the Indigenous land rights framework in Canada, which differs between First Nations, Métis and Inuit. The chapter then explores how treaty rights have evolved in recent years and outlines mechanisms to expand the land base. Following this, the chapter examines how Indigenous groups can better manage land, participate in or undertake land use planning, establish objectives for community development and obtain revenues from land. The chapter ends with a discussion of Indigenous land rights in relation to natural resource development projects, including frameworks for participation and consultation.

The objective of this chapter is to assess and provide recommendations to improve the policy framework for Indigenous entrepreneurship, particularly in rural areas. The chapter begins by discussing the framework conditions for Indigenous entrepreneurship with a focus on rural areas, the unique aspects of Indigenous entrepreneurship and the rights framework and regulatory environment specific to the Indian Act. Areas of competitive advantages and opportunities for Indigenous entrepreneurship are then identified. Third, the chapter assesses the main government policies at the federal and provincial levels that support Indigenous entrepreneurship and the main Indigenous organisations that are involved delivering services and providing strategic advice. The chapter ends by examining some of the key policy levers that can support Indigenous entrepreneurship.

The objective of this chapter is to assess and provide recommendations about supporting the implementation of a place-based approach to Indigenous economic development. The chapter begins by explaining why a place-based approached is central to supporting Indigenous entrepreneurship and economic development. The following sections discuss the four key elements for the effective governance of place-based Indigenous development described above and offer recommendations on how they could be improved/supported in Canada at both the national and sub-national levels.

The objective of this chapter is to provide a profile of each of the communities visited as part of this study. This includes their governance, framework conditions for development, economic development strategies and key economic development issues for the future.