Ce rapport qui a été préparé sous l’égide du Forum inclusif sur les approches d’atténuation des émissions de carbone (Forum inclusif), propose une vue d’ensemble des principales approches utilisées pour le calcul des indicateurs de l’intensité carbone des produits ainsi que des difficultés rencontrées, notamment en ce qui concerne la collecte et la vérification des informations dans l’ensemble de la chaîne d’approvisionnement. Ces travaux apportent des éclairages utiles sur la manière de limiter les doublons entre les différentes initiatives, de diminuer les coûts de mise en conformité et de notification supportés par les entreprises, et d’éviter de perturber les échanges commerciaux.

This paper examines how different socio-demographic groups experience AI at work. As AI can automate non-routine, cognitive tasks, tertiary-educated workers in “white-collar” occupations will likely face disruption, even if empirical analysis does not suggest that overall employment levels have fallen due to AI, even in “white-collar” occupations. The main risk for those without tertiary education, female and older workers is that they lose out due to lower access to AI-related employment opportunities and to productivity-enhancing AI tools in the workplace. By identifying the main risks and opportunities associated with different socio-demographic groups, the ultimate aim is to allow policy makers to target supports and to capture the benefits of AI (increased productivity and economic growth) without increasing inequalities and societal resistance to technological progress.

A economia azul é um importante impulsionador de crescimento econômico no Estado e na Região Metropolitana do Rio de Janeiro, respondendo por cerca de 27 a 44% do PIB estadual, com atividades altamente concentradas na região metropolitana. O governo estadual está atualmente implementando várias políticas relacionadas à economia azul, incluindo uma Política Estadual de Economia do Mar, um Projeto de Gestão da Economia Azul e programas que promovem a inovação azul e a boa governança da Baía de Guanabara. No entanto, lacunas relacionadas à elaboração, coerência e implementação de políticas precisam ser abordadas para liberar o potencial de uma economia azul mais resiliente, inclusiva, sustentável e circular (à prova de RISC) na região metropolitana. Com base em um diálogo político com a Secretaria de Estado do Ambiente e Sustentabilidade e mais de 100 partes interessadas dos setores público, privado e sem fins lucrativos, este documento analisa a situação da economia azul no estado e na região metropolitana, identifica as principais lacunas de governança e recomenda um plano de ação para uma economia azul à prova de RISC na Região Metropolitana do Rio de Janeiro.

The blue economy is a significant driver of economic growth in the State and Metropolitan Region of Rio de Janeiro, accounting for an estimated 27-44% of state GDP, with activities highly concentrated in the metropolitan region. The state government is currently implementing several blue economy policies, including a State Policy on the Sea Economy, a Blue Economy Management Project, and programmes fostering blue innovation and good governance of the Guanabara Bay. However, gaps related to policy making, coherence and implementation need to be addressed to unlock the potential of a more resilient, inclusive, sustainable and circular (RISC-proof) blue economy in the metropolitan region. Based on a policy dialogue with the State Secretariat of Environment and Sustainability and 100+ stakeholders from the public, private and non-profit sectors, this policy paper analyses the state of play of the blue economy in the state and metropolitan region, identifies the main governance gaps, and recommends an action plan towards a RISC-proof blue economy in the Metropolitan Region of Rio de Janeiro.

This paper explores the role of competition and regulation in shaping the outcomes and consumer experiences of the care industry (early childhood care and long-term care). Both services are vital to economic and social well-being, particularly in light of demographic change and the cross-cutting implications for other aspects of the economy, such as women’s participation in the labour market. This paper analyses how competition and regulation can drive quality and market outcomes, whilst addressing market failures and equity concerns within the industry, to arrive at a conclusion on the role competition authorities can play.

Under the Paris Agreement, Parties are to put forward their next nationally determined contributions (NDCs) in February 2025. The outcomes of the first global stocktake (GST1) provides key signals to inform this next round of NDCs, including the adoption of economy-wide emission reduction targets, as well as global calls to achieve net-zero emissions in the energy sector by mid-century and halt deforestation and forest degradation by 2030. This paper explores how Parties can take forward these global calls in their next NDCs. Information provided by Parties in their NDCs and biennial transparency reports (BTRs) on their responses to the global energy and forestry calls will be important for assessing collective ambition and progress towards the GST1 mitigation outcomes. Drawing on lessons from experiences, this paper also explores how to gear the next NDCs towards implementation and investment. Underpinning NDCs with more granular information, whether in the NDC or in subsequent documents, establishing robust whole-of-government approaches and inclusive stakeholder engagement processes, can help to meet the needs of different actors, unlock finance and investment, and support the delivery of climate actions.

Missions are nested entities involving multiple interventions at different levels and unclear and evolving boundaries, making traditional evaluation approaches ill-suited to capturing their additionality. This paper proposes mission-evaluation processes and tools that are consistent with their specific features. It notably proposes mission criteria related to their different expected systemic effects; a mission theory of action to support a developmental evaluation that tracks the evolution of the mission design and processes; and a monitoring tool to assess and compare mission-readiness levels across missions and at different stages of the mission life cycle.

This paper provides an insight into the policy landscape for sustainable infrastructure in Indonesia. It identifies opportunities for promoting responsible business conduct (RBC) in infrastructure development in the country and includes policy considerations on how to use RBC frameworks to further facilitate sustainable infrastructure investment. This paper is one of four papers analysing the role of responsible business conduct in enabling sustainable infrastructure.

In an increasingly globalised and digitised world economy, the number of mergers transactions that impact more than one country has also increased. For competition authorities responsible for reviewing merger transactions, this has created new challenges and introduced more complexity to their merger review procedures and analyses. This paper surveys these challenges, explains the reasons why competition authorities may arrive at different decisions, and discusses the role that international co-operation plays in each phase of a cross-border merger review. Drawing from a range of case studies across both OECD and non-OECD member countries, the paper highlights practical tools competition authorities can use to improve the effectiveness of their cross-border mergers.

This guide presents the Trade in Employment by workforce characteristics (TiMBC) database developed by the OECD to help inform cross-country, cross-industry discussions of issues such as gender and trade, skills and global value chains (GVCs), and the economic effects of an ageing population. It is an extension of the Trade in Employment (TiM) database, whereby indicators that provide insights into the different relations between GVC integration and employment by industry are further decomposed by workforce characteristics - namely age, gender, occupation, and education. To achieve this, statistics on employment by workforce characteristics, mainly Labour Force Surveys (LFS), are combined with existing TiM indicators. These novel indicators by workforce characteristics cover 43 countries and 12 unique industries, for the period 2008 to 2018. This guide presents the database, the sources and methods used, and a brief analysis showcasing indicators.

Universities play an important role in driving innovation and economic growth within their own regions across England and Wales. By engaging with local partners, they help address societal challenges and support regional development. Yet, integrating a territorial dimension in research, innovation and engagement agendas can be challenging. The report, The Geography of Higher Education in England and Wales, draws on insights from the OECD Entrepreneurship Education Collaboration and Engagement (EECOLE) platform. Focusing on the National Civic Impact Accelerator (NCIA), established by the Civic University Network, it explores how universities are aligning their research and innovation efforts with regional priorities to strengthen entrepreneurial ecosystems. The report also highlights the importance of stronger partnerships with local stakeholders, including SMEs, to enhance the impact of the NCIA on regional innovation and prosperity.

Adapting to growing climate change risks and achieving climate resilient development requires making finance consistent with this goal, as called for by Article 2.1c of the Paris Agreement. To assess progress and help inform policies to increase the climate resilience of finance flows and stocks, major conceptual and data gaps need to be filled. This paper explores possible methods, data and metrics to help fill those gaps. It takes stock of existing approaches and data to assess physical climate risks in finance, and then identifies complementary analytical dimensions, data and information needed for assessing the alignment of finance flows and stocks with climate resilience policy goals. In this context, the paper proposes actions that policymakers, researchers and market players can take to support credible and comparable assessments, as well as identifies the need for pilot studies to help adjust and refine the approach while identifying feasible and practical indicators.

This paper proposes an analytical framework to calculate an environmentally sustainable productivity index (ESPI) to address the multiple challenges faced at present by food systems. Using this framework, an empirical analysis covering 28 countries (anonymised) over three decades examines sustainable productivity performance including three environmental externalities: greenhouse gas emissions, and nitrogen and phosphorus surpluses. The results illustrate how the framework could be used to identify trends in environmentally sustainable productivity within and across countries. While this framework is flexible and can accommodate multiple environmental variables, its application requires appropriate and comparable data on agriculture production and related environmental performance, selecting methods to measure and aggregate groups of outputs and inputs into the productivity index, and choosing a weight for environmental externalities relative to commodity outputs. Sensitivity analyses, as well as comparisons with other approaches to measure sustainable productivity can be undertaken using this framework to ensure the robustness of the measurement. By supporting cross-section comparisons, the ESPI also has the potential to be used in statistical analysis to identify the economic and policy drivers of sustainable productivity performance.

Overcoming the challenges facing food systems requires producing more with fewer inputs, while reducing the impact on natural resources. Sustainable agricultural productivity growth involves using innovative technologies and practices that increase productivity, while also reducing pressures on the environment. While the economic productivity of agriculture is fundamental to achieve the UN Sustainable Development Goal 2 of ending hunger, achieving food security and improved nutrition, and promoting sustainable agriculture, it is not enough. Agricultural activity growth also needs to ensure environmental and social sustainability.

Circular economy policies can aim to ensure that products placed on the market are environmentally sustainable throughout their lifecycle. These upstream circular economy policies can include initiatives to phase out hazardous substances, and enhance product durability, repairability, reusability, and recyclability. Policy instruments used to this end include Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) schemes, eco-labelling and information schemes, product-related standards, eco-design requirements, green public procurement, and fiscal policies. While these upstream circular economy policies are increasingly considered in policymaking, their linkages with international trade have received less attention, especially in contrast to downstream aspects such as trade in waste and scrap. These policies can have potential implications for trade, including creating synergies between trade and circular economy objectives (e.g. making traded products more recyclable), as well as unintended consequences (e.g. through regulatory fragmentation). This report aims to fill this knowledge gap by exploring the trade implications of upstream circular economy policies.

This paper analyses Veneto’s decentralised development co-operation (DDC) practices. Key issues include the need to review its strategic objectives, prioritise resource allocation and increase the representation of specific groups in project partnerships. Veneto’s 2023-2025 DDC strategy demonstrates a commitment to addressing these challenges by targeting critical areas of reform in governance, stakeholder engagement and project evaluation. Drawing on insights from four international case studies, this paper outlines detailed recommendations to enhance the strategy’s effectiveness, efficiency and inclusiveness and aims to integrate Veneto’s DDC engagements with local development opportunities. Leveraging sectoral champions and involving the private sector represent untapped potential, fostering a cycle of awareness and stronger public support for DDC in Veneto.

Korea’s fertility rate fell to 0.72 children per woman over her lifetime in 2023, the lowest in the world, while surveys show that people ideally would want more children. Employment and wage gaps between men and women are among the highest in the OECD, pointing to difficulties in combining careers and motherhood as a main culprit, combined with high spending on private education and housing. Family policies, labour market structures and gender norms combine to define the career-family trade-off, but high performance in one does not necessarily make up for gaps in the other two. OECD experience can guide Korea in its efforts to improve the situation. Korea has scaled up family policies considerably and compares well with other OECD countries on many indicators, but gaps remain to bring childcare fully in line with working parents’ needs. Parental leave eligibility is restricted and take-up low for a number of reasons including low replacement rates and weak legal protection against discrimination compared to OECD best practice. The adoption of flexible working arrangements is lower and working hours remain longer in Korea than in most other OECD countries, constraining the time available for family. Labour market duality leads young people to delay career starts and family formation and weakens their financial position. Social norms assign the responsibility for caregiving to mothers and charge fathers with being breadwinners much more strongly than in the rest of the OECD.

This literature review examines Korea's declining fertility rate in the past few decades, seeking to understand the interactions between women's employment, fertility, and associated policies, and making findings from Korean-language literature more accessible to an international audience. It reviews studies covering the demographic process of declining birth rates, women's labour supply, gender discrimination, and the effects of family policies aimed at making it easier to combine women's employment and childbirth. Women have over time gradually moved towards prioritising work over family when facing conflicts between the two. In the decades up until around 2010 women increasingly delayed marriage and childbirth and reduced the number of children over their lifetimes, but almost all women eventually got married and had at least one child. From the 2010s, more women choose to remain unmarried or married and childless. Family policies like childcare and parental leave have not been sufficient to make work and childrearing compatible in general and have therefore not had the desired effects on fertility and female employment. The effects of policy interventions vary based on factors like women's labour market position and access to support programmes like quality childcare. The analysis indicates that until employment and motherhood can be combined in a reasonable way for most women, the alternative cost of motherhood will remain high and fertility will remain low or fall even further.

Pension reforms, particularly those changing the normal retirement ages, are both crucial and controversial in ageing developed countries. This paper investigates the effects of such reforms on the labour market, focusing on the older-age employment rate. While existing cross-country estimates agree on a positive and significant effect of raising normal retirement ages, the estimated labour market effects are modest and usually much smaller than those derived from country-specific studies using micro data. This study attempts to reconcile these differences by introducing greater heterogeneity into the cross-country approach to better capture country-specific demographics and pension system characteristics, so that estimated effects are closer to those from single-country studies. Starting from a standard cross-country panel error correction model, several empirical innovations are introduced to better capture the influence of the demographic composition of countries, the possibility to retire at earlier ages, and the importance of private pension funds and early exit pathways. These changes result in larger and more heterogeneous predicted effects of changes in the normal retirement ages on the older-age employment rate and average age of labour market exit across countries. This suggests a greater and varied impact of pension reforms on the labour market than previously estimated with pooled cross-country estimations, emphasising the importance of considering countries’ demographic compositions and pension systems specificities when predicting the effects of pension reforms. The proposed model, distinguishing between minimum and normal retirement ages, allows for simulations on the effects of increasing normal retirement ages and narrowing the gap between normal and minimum retirement ages. In countries with the lowest older age employment rates, bridging these gaps could result in substantial increases in their employment rates.

Gender inequalities persist as a global challenge amidst the transition towards a green and digital future. These shifts towards environmental sustainability and digital societies mark a pivotal moment, offering significant opportunities to advance gender equality through new economic prospects and more diverse participation in decision-making processes. However, these transitions also highlight existing gender disparities, such as wage gaps and limited participation in leadership roles in both private and public spheres. In addition, the digital transformation exposes women to technology-facilitated gender-based violence and can increase young individuals' exposure to harmful content, reinforcing negative gender norms and stereotypes. To fully harness the opportunities presented by these global transitions, it is crucial to address labour market inequalities and ensure access to emerging job opportunities. Promoting the skills needed for success in the green, energy, and digital sectors, and integrating gender equality into policies and strategies, are essential steps. This paper, supporting the inaugural OECD Forum on Gender Equality, provides valuable insights into these transitions, highlighting both challenges and opportunities.