Gender inequalities persist as a global challenge amidst the transition towards a green and digital future. These shifts towards environmental sustainability and digital societies mark a pivotal moment, offering significant opportunities to advance gender equality through new economic prospects and more diverse participation in decision-making processes. However, these transitions also highlight existing gender disparities, such as wage gaps and limited participation in leadership roles in both private and public spheres. In addition, the digital transformation exposes women to technology-facilitated gender-based violence and can increase young individuals' exposure to harmful content, reinforcing negative gender norms and stereotypes. To fully harness the opportunities presented by these global transitions, it is crucial to address labour market inequalities and ensure access to emerging job opportunities. Promoting the skills needed for success in the green, energy, and digital sectors, and integrating gender equality into policies and strategies, are essential steps. This paper, supporting the inaugural OECD Forum on Gender Equality, provides valuable insights into these transitions, highlighting both challenges and opportunities.

Les inégalités des genres restent un défi mondial dans le contexte des transitions verte et numérique. Ces changements vers la durabilité environnementale et les sociétés numériques marquent un tournant, offrant des opportunités significatives pour faire progresser l'égalité des genres, en ouvrant de nouvelles perspectives économiques et en pouvant favoriser une participation plus inclusive aux processus décisionnels. Toutefois, ces transitions mettent également en évidence les disparités existantes entre les genres, telles que les écarts de salaires et la participation limitée des femmes aux rôles décisionnels dans les sphères privée et publique. En outre, la transformation numérique expose les femmes à la violence basée sur le genre facilitée par la technologie et peut accroître l'exposition des jeunes à des contenus violents pouvant perpétuer des masculinités toxiques et des stéréotypes de genre néfastes. Pour exploiter pleinement les possibilités offertes par ces transitions mondiales, il est crucial de s'attaquer aux inégalités sur le marché du travail et de garantir l'accès aux nouvelles opportunités d'emploi. Promouvoir les compétences nécessaires pour réussir dans les secteurs de l'environnement, de l'énergie et du numérique, et intégrer l'égalité des genres dans les politiques et les stratégies sont des étapes essentielles. Ce document, élaboré à l'appui de la première édition du Forum de l'OCDE sur l'égalité des genres, propose un état des lieux approfondi sur l'égalité face aux transitions en cours, en soulignant à la fois les défis à relever et les opportunités à saisir.

This technical note presents a first stocktake of Swiss and Dutch mitigation and mitigation-relevant road transport policy instruments, and a preliminary mapping of these policies to the emissions they cover. This exercise informs the IFCMA's (Inclusive Forum on Carbon Mitigation Approaches) stocktaking and mapping work. For the mapping, the note showcases an application of the novel concepts developed in the IFCMA paper, “Proposal for a Greenhouse Gas Mapping Methodology of Climate Change Mitigation and Climate Change Mitigation-Relevant Policy Instruments”.

Cities are pivotal hubs for the world’s population, economic activity, and cultural exchange, yet their advantages – such as density and interconnectedness – can be sources of vulnerability to crises ranging from natural disasters to economic shocks and pandemics. This report draws lessons from recent crises to provide a strategic framework for urban policymakers to bolster resilience against future shocks, including by promoting sustainability and driving inclusive growth. The report underscores the importance of resilience for cities to absorb, recover from, and adjust positively to shocks while adapting to long-term transitions. It presents nine lessons for rethinking urban policies, drawn from the experiences of recent crises and a compass for future-proof cities and urban policy through greater resilience, proximity, sufficiency, and justice. The report concludes by emphasising the importance of managing trade-offs and maximising synergies in urban policy to navigate the complexities of modern urban life by finding areas of mutual benefit between policy objectives such as economic growth, environmental sustainability, and social equity. City leaders are encouraged to work together with national governments, as advocated by the OECD Principles on Urban Policy, and to leverage foresight and new disciplines for strategic decision-making to ensure a bright, more resilient future for their residents.

This paper provides an insight into the policy landscape for sustainable infrastructure in the Philippines. It identifies opportunities for promoting responsible business conduct (RBC) in infrastructure development in the country and includes policy considerations on how to use RBC frameworks to further facilitate sustainable infrastructure investment. This paper is one of four papers analysing the role of responsible business conduct in enabling sustainable infrastructure.

In many OECD countries, the majority of social spending is financed from earmarked revenues, and a large share of revenues earmarked for any type of government spending is used for social purposes. Tying revenue sources to specific expenditure categories has a number of potential advantages and weaknesses. These trade-offs depend on the design and implementation of earmarking, and they can become more apparent when fiscal space is tight. In practice, provisions for linking revenues to programme spending differ widely, and they vary also by social protection branch within countries. This paper compares financing patterns and trends and provides examples of earmarking for social insurance and assistance programmes. It concludes with a discussion of carbon pricing as a potential source of financing social support programmes.

This paper provides an insight into the policy landscape for sustainable infrastructure in Thailand. It identifies opportunities for promoting responsible business conduct (RBC) in infrastructure development in the country and includes policy considerations on how to use RBC frameworks to further facilitate sustainable infrastructure investment. This paper is one of four papers analysing the role of responsible business conduct in enabling sustainable infrastructure.

Le présent document propose une méthodologie pour cartographier les instruments d’action en fonction du périmètre des émissions de gaz à effet de serre (GES). Il vise à soutenir les efforts déployés dans le cadre du Forum inclusif sur les approches d’atténuation des émissions de carbone (Forum inclusif) pour améliorer la compréhension des politiques des pays en termes approches d’atténuation des émissions de carbone, en proposant un inventaire complet et systématique des instruments d’actions et en mettant en place une base de données correspondante. La méthodologie de cartographie des émissions de GES est conçue pour être inclusive, couvrant un large éventail d'instruments politiques pertinents pour l’atténuation du changement climatique, et est appliquée aux études pilotes nationales dans le cadre du Forum inclusif. Le document développe plusieurs concepts et définitions clés et propose une approche en cinq étapes qui se concentre sur la conception administrative de l'instrument d’action, sa base réglementaire et les obligations légales établies dans le cadre réglementaire. Enfin, le document présente deux exemples de cartographie des GES issues d'une des premières études pilotes du Forum inclusif (Chili).

To meet the goal of net-zero emissions by 2050, Spain will need to take further climate action in the years ahead. Enhanced policy measures, such as taxes, subsidies and standards, will have implications for the public budget and for the economy. This paper quantifies these implications by comparing two scenarios developed with the ENV-Linkages model: a baseline with current policies, and a net-zero scenario in which more ambitious climate policy measures are implemented to reduce CO₂ emissions. The analysis shows that ambitious climate action and economic growth can go hand-in-hand. While the consequences for the public budget will be strongly influenced by the chosen climate policy instruments, the findings illustrate that the changes in net fiscal revenues induced by additional climate policy can be small compared to the overall size of government revenues in 2050.

Countries are increasingly turning to industrial policy to address concerns over climate change, energy security and strategic autonomy. This paper explores the potential and risks of green industrial policies with a focus on green subsidies, and illustrates some key design considerations that governments should take into account when providing such support. To get green industrial policy right, governments need to ensure that support is targeted, time-bound, and accompanied by effective monitoring and evaluation. Large data gaps remain on the scale, scope and impact of green industrial policy — filling these and co-operating internationally on good-practice policy design will be essential to minimise risk and realise the full benefits green industrial policies can offer.

This paper sets out the main issues being tackled in Phase Two of the OECD’s Horizontal Project on Climate and Economic Resilience: Net Zero+. These issues are explored in detail in a series of policy papers that bring together the wide range of OECD expertise on climate change to provide governments with a clear overview of policy options at their disposal to address the climate emergency. This framing paper introduces the Net Zero+ Policy Paper series, providing background and context to each of the in-depth papers that follow. Each paper synthesises relevant work carried out by the OECD over the 2023/24 biennium. The papers focus on how to deliver the immediate and drastic emissions reductions needed this decade to keep the Paris Agreement’s temperature targets within reach, while also improving resilience to climate impacts and other disruptions.

This document proposes a methodology to map policy instruments to their greenhouse gas (GHG) emission base. It seeks to support the efforts under the Inclusive Forum on Carbon Mitigation Approaches (IFCMA) to enhance the understanding of countries’ climate change mitigation policies by providing a comprehensive and systematic stocktake of policy instruments and establishing a corresponding database. The GHG mapping methodology is designed to be inclusive, covering a broad set of policy instruments relevant for climate change mitigation and is being applied to country pilot studies under the IFCMA. It develops several key concepts and definitions and proposes a five-step approach that focuses on a policy instrument’s administrative design, policy regulatory base and the legal obligations established under the regulatory framework. Finally, it presents two GHG mapping examples drawn from one of the first IFCMA pilot studies (Chile).

This working paper explores the role of data governance in advancing people-centred justice systems. It outlines the objectives, values, and practices necessary to harness data effectively, drawing on OECD policy instruments. The paper provides actionable insights for policymakers aiming to implement data-driven justice reforms. It also addresses the challenges and opportunities presented by digital transformation in the justice sector, advocating for a strategic approach that balances innovation with the protection of fundamental rights. It incorporates lessons from data governance activities and experiences in justice and other relevant sectors. This paper is essential reading for those involved in modernisation of justice and data governance.

This policy paper presents a step-by-step assessment to help countries implement the OECD Recommendation on Access to Justice and People-Centred Justice Systems. The paper draws on the United Kingdom's model for measuring access to His Majesty’s Courts and Tribunals Service. It is designed to help policymakers adapt this assessment model to their specific contexts and provides guidance on using data to identify and address barriers to court services. With a focus on people-centred justice, it includes good practices and country examples for using data to realise equal access to justice for all.

This policy paper introduces the OECD Online Dispute Resolution (ODR) Framework, exploring how digital technologies and data can support dispute resolution within and beyond court systems, thereby enhancing access to justice for all. It elaborates on three pillars - governance, policy levers, and ethics and safeguards - offering comprehensive guidance to countries on integrating ODR. The framework aims to assist countries in improving the seamless transfer of information across various dispute resolution mechanisms. The paper provides a strategic approach to developing ODR, including best practices for governance, robust legal frameworks, and ethical standards to ensure fairness and transparency. It highlights the successful implementation of ODR globally, demonstrating its potential to make justice more efficient and accessible to all.

Ensuring the well-being of farmers, their families, farmworkers, and that of their communities is high on the agenda of governments and policy makers in OECD countries. The quality of agricultural jobs (e.g. working conditions) and quality of life aspects such as environmental quality, health, depopulation of rural areas, isolation, crime, discrimination, and access to knowledge together determine the well-being of those active in the agricultural sector. Relevant policy design has tended to be hampered by serious data gaps. By focusing on different dimensions of well-being, this paper proposes a framework for social issues in agriculture to identify cross-cutting challenges. Seven policy examples, covering diverse social issues such as mental health, developing social connections in isolated rural areas, and inclusiveness of Indigenous Peoples and those with disabilities, confirm the need to look beyond traditional sectoral policies and to address social issues from a broader policy perspective. Only a multipronged approach can successfully remove the barriers that hinder opportunities for all farmers and their communities.

This paper examines the evolution of the role of defence and security forces in combating insurgencies in the most affected coastal West African states. The case studies offer examinations of states’ efforts to enhance the capabilities of defence and security forces in five areas, namely the expansion, professionalisation, and specialisation, as well as enhancement of multi-agency co-ordination and community relations. They also identify a set of challenges and opportunities surrounding the adoption and implementation of comprehensive strategies to countering violent militancy. Each context is different, but the cases’ commonalities help generate several foundational lessons that defence and security forces and their organisations should consider as they hone and deepen the reforms launched to enhance the operational effectiveness and political legitimacy of their forces. These lessons reinforce the principles and imperatives derived from studies on countering militant groups in the Sahel and West Africa.

This review takes stock of the large body of evidence on aggregate productivity growth, its structural drivers, and the role of a wide range of policies. It aims to synthesise evidence on how public policies can promote productivity through their impacts on both the incentives and the capabilities of businesses and workers, taking account of different specificities of firms at the frontier and below, and integrating complementarities across policy areas. It also identifies gaps in knowledge, thus offering potential directions for future work.

This financial literacy Strategy focuses on retail investors who purchased investment products for the first time since the start of the COVID-19 pandemic, when significant numbers of new retail investors entered the market. Based on evidence summarised in the analytical report New retail investors in France: Attitudes, Knowledge and Behaviours, this Strategy identifies a set of priority policies to improve financial literacy of new retail investors and presents an action plan to implement the Strategy for the next three years.

This document sets out an agenda for policy reforms to make housing sectors more economically efficient, socially inclusive and environmentally sustainable. The Agenda brings together the evidence-based conclusions identified by the OECD through a comprehensive review of the functioning of the housing market and sector conducted in recent years and documented in two Reports in 2021 and 2023. Based on these findings, the Agenda provides a concise set of good policy principles and practices that decision-makers can use and adapt according to country circumstances and preferences to conduct policy reforms for better housing.