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The OECD’s “Average-Wage” (AW) concept is commonly used as a benchmark for tax-benefit and pension modeling. The purpose of this paper is to examine whether it is possible to use richer sets of earnings data in order to customize these modeling exercises to the situation of different groups of workers, such as high or low-earning men or women. We first take stock of available sources of earnings distribution data and provide a careful assessment of measurement and definitional differences relative to the AW. In a second step, information on the shape of earnings distributions in OECD countries is used to derive synthetic distributions around the AW, distinguishing between the earnings of men and women. We argue that this pragmatic approach yields data that allow extending the scope of tax-benefit and pensions modelling. Moreover, it does so in a way that is consistent with past modeling exercises that relied on the AW. We highlight data quality issues and discuss the potential limitations of the imputed AW-consistent earnings distributions.
Many workers experience large fluctuations in before-tax labour earnings from one year to the next, due to changes in working hours, movements in and out of work and changes in pay. Youth entering the labour market and workers in non-standard jobs (such as temporary employment or self-employment) are the most likely to experience both large increases and large decreases in earnings. Other workers, such as those with a low level of education, poor health or approaching retirement, have only an increased chance of experiencing a large drop in earnings. It is often difficult for workers to predict changes in earnings and assess whether these are temporary or permanent. Additionally, private insurance and financial markets are poorly equipped to protect households against earnings fluctuations. Large drops in individual earnings are associated with an increased risk of household poverty and financial stress, with the impact largest in the poorest households. Tax and welfare systems can help buffer households against volatile earnings. Taxes play a prominent role in reducing the impact of earnings fluctuations among full-time workers, while transfers such as unemployment benefits and social assistance are more important when volatility is due to movements into or out of work.

The early childhood education and care (ECEC) workforce is foundational for providing high-quality learning, development and well-being experiences for young children. Policies can support the development of this workforce by addressing requirements for initial education and continuing professional development, as well as the working conditions of ECEC staff. Examining different policy approaches with a focus on Ireland and Luxembourg, this Policy Brief highlights key opportunities for peer learning across countries interested in enhancing process quality in ECEC through workforce development.

More mothers with young children are in paid work than in the past. There is a long-running debate on possible negative effects of maternal employment on child development. For the first time, this paper presents an initial comparative analysis of longitudinal data on maternal employment patterns after birth on child cognitive and behavioural development. The paper examines data of five OECD countries with different types and intensity of support provided to families to reconcile work and family life. The evidence suggests that a return to paid work by mothers within six months after childbirth may have negative effects on child outcomes, particularly on cognitive development, but the effects are small and not universally observed. Other factors such as family income, parental education and quality of interaction with children have greater influences on child development than early maternal employment per se.

New teachers entering the profession are said to bring with them enthusiasm, idealism and recent training – a promising combination for innovative teaching. However, these early career teachers are also commonly portrayed as professionals facing exceptional challenges, with fragile identities who leave the career in high proportions. Can these new teachers help schools to innovate while trying to perform as effective teachers during their initial years? This paper argues that the difficulties most early career teachers encounter, which have largely remained unchanged over the last 50 years, are embedded characteristics of the teaching profession. Further, it discusses the importance of the first five years of the teacher career in acquiring critical professional skills, and highlights the importance of context over experience per se. The paper concludes by making the case that these first five years could work as a residency for early career teachers – similar to that of medical training – where they could receive support to experiment in sheltered environments. This professional residency might represent a policy milestone in the building of a continuum of teachers’ professional growth and development.

The stepwise liberalisation of the EU internal aviation market resulted in 1993 in an open internal market that generated a series of supply side responses, which are partly comparable with the changes demonstrated in the deregulated US domestic air transport market. However, the starting point was quite different between these two markets. For example, until the deregulation in 1978, US legacy carriers operated a domestic crisscross network whereas the two flag carriers, Pan Am and TWA operated at various US gateways in stand-alone international networks based on the bilateral air service agreements concluded between the US and other states. After the deregulation, domestic major carriers transformed their crisscross domestic networks into radial hub and spoke networks (except the Delta hub at Atlanta that already existed before the deregulation). The domestic hubs in these networks also became the launching platforms for international operations when these domestic major carriers started to use their domestic feed for international operations. All in all, the former domestic major carriers became the new flag carriers in international markets, whereas the former two flag carriers went bankrupt due to the lack of domestic feed in order to adequately compete with these new internationally operating airlines.

Environmental, social, and governance (ESG) products are increasingly being used as a tool to assess the alignment of company targets and objectives with actions to support an orderly low-carbon transition. Building on existing OECD research on ESG ratings, and particularly the environmental ‘E’ pillar, this report seeks to understand the underlying data and metrics developed by ESG rating providers and their alignment with lower carbon emissions as well as with climate frameworks and initiatives.

The OECD Document “Convergence and Next Generation Networks” analysed developments in Next Generation Networks (NGN), and the convergence of core and access networks. The aim of that paper was to review areas where policy changes may be required and to put forward recommendations for considerations in areas where change may be necessary to support new developments and to ensure that telecommunication policy goals can be met. The paper depicted areas of regulatory interest, arising from the deployment of NGN. The objective was to identify policy and regulatory issues that government and national regulatory authorities may have to confront in the framework of the development of core next generation networks. It noted that the issue of ‘Numbering, naming and addressing” was a policy area that would need further analysis and that ENUM was one of the potentially significant developments in the converging world of telephone numbering, naming and addressing.

One year ago most economic observers predicted that "fundamentals" were such that the euro was set to appreciate. In the event, the opposite has occurred. This has rekindled a debate on how well foreign exchange markets reflect fundamental determinants and led to calls for greater exchange rate stability, possibly through the introduction of formal exchange rate target zones. The first part of the paper focuses on these issues. It also looks at the euro’s prospects as an international currency. To give a better sense of perspective, the paper compares recent exchange rate movements and measures of volatility with longerterm trends. The article argues that the difference in cyclical conditions in the United States and the euro area seems to have been a dominant factor driving the sizeable euro depreciation since early 1999, although when evaluated against longer term trends it appears much less dramatic; the euro is presently at about its past 5-year average level expressed in nominal effective terms ...

In this paper the authors describe the outline of an analysis of disruptive technologies presented by Christensen in his book, The Innovator’s Dilemma. They go on to argue that the analysis can be applied to the practice of e-learning as it has been developed in higher education in the United Kingdom, and possibly elsewhere. They suggest that current moves away from fully developed e-learning and towards “blended learning” can be understood in terms of Christensen’s analysis, and that the move may be an indication that large, established organisations have difficulty in adjusting to disruptive technologies. They conclude that much research needs to be done in the area of e-learning, especially small scale studies of how e-learning can be used away from the established culture of formal education. This is an approach to market research that is also contained in Christensen’s analysis. In summary, they argue that Christensen’s analysis offers some important insights into the process of adopting e-learning solutions in higher education, and also suggests some fruitful directions for future research.

French

This brief discusses how the COVID-19 crisis is accelerating an expansion of e-commerce towards new firms, customers and types of products, likely involving a long-term shift of e-commerce transactions from luxury goods and services to everyday necessities. It also highlights how policy makers can leverage the potential of digital transformation in retail and related areas to support business adaptation and to enhance social distancing, while ensuring that no one is left behind.

French
Books have undergone a massive transformation from a physical object to something entirely different: the electronic book, or “e-book”. This report provides background on e-book markets and examines various policy issues related to e-books. These include differing tax rates in countries between physical books and e-books, consumer lock-in to specific platforms, limitations on how users can read and share their purchased content, and a lack of transparency about how data on their reading habits is being used.
Electronic means of communication can greatly simplify the publication of public contracts and increase the efficiency and transparency of procurement processes. SIGMA Brief 17 explains what is meant by e-procurement and aims to explain the rationale behind using e-procurement, presenting country examples and resulting improvements. The Brief also provides an overview of the relevant rules of the EU Directives and different e-procurement tools such as e-auctions, e-catalogues or dynamic purchasing systems.

In this paper, we analyse the potential contribution of the Internet and its commercial application to the development process in poor countries. In historical perspective, the Internet has diffused at a far faster rate than earlier generations of communications technology: from 1990 to early 2000, the estimated number of Internet users grew more than tenfold to roughly 300 million, affecting the way in which people communicate with each other, acquire information, learn, do business, and interact culturally. Our particular focus is on the opportunities e-commerce offers to small-scale entrepreneurs in developing countries and the challenges they face in exploiting e-commerce’s potential.

There is a risk that a “digital divide” will emerge, reinforcing existing income and wealth inequalities within and between countries. Yet, a major potential benefit of globalisation is the freer movement of technology, including information and communication technology (ICT), across borders. In ...

E-commerce -- an application of the Internet -- has expanded exponentially over the past 5 years and is widely expected to continue to develop rapidly in the medium-term. Much, however, remains to be done to fully exploit the opportunities offered by e-commerce. And as e-commerce develops, it could have profound impacts in individual sectors of the economy as well as for macroeconomic performance and economic policies. This paper assesses the potential outcomes and economic impacts of e-commerce in the business to business and business to consumer spheres; the forces underlying its expansion and the possible implications for structural and macroeconomic policy management ...

  • 17 May 2023
  • Lylah Davies, Deger Saygin
  • Pages: 125

Colombia ha priorizado el uso de energías renovables para expandir y mejorar los servicios de energía eléctrica de la población en zonas no interconectadas con la red nacional. Las recientes políticas y normas han respaldado esta ambición con medidas sucesivas para fortalecer las condiciones de inversión en energía renovable distribuida, tales como las soluciones solares fotovoltaicas (FV) independientes y minirredes solares FV híbridas.

El mercado de energías renovables distribuidas en zonas no interconectadas aún es relativamente nuevo, lo cual se ve reflejado en los altos costos para conectar nuevos usuarios. Los nuevos modelos de negocio y financiamiento serán cruciales para reducir el costo de las nuevas tecnologías de energía renovable, acceder a capital privado y préstamos en volúmenes mayores y, a la larga, avanzar hacia el remplazo de los sistemas contaminantes e ineficientes de generación de diésel.

En base a experiencias internacionales, el presente artículo analiza los enfoques para fortalecer las condiciones de inversión, teniendo en cuenta los mecanismos de soporte e instrumentos de eliminación de riesgos utilizados en otros lugares, los cuales pueden ayudar a cerrar la brecha financiera en Colombia.

English

El comercio internacional se desplomó en 2020, pero se recuperó con fuerza en 2021. Si bien los flujos comerciales totales se encuentran ahora holgadamente por encima de los niveles anteriores a la pandemia, los impactos comerciales sobre todos los bienes, servicios y socios comerciales específicos son muy diversos, lo cual presiona a determinados sectores y cadenas de suministro. Los cambios en la estructura del comercio provocados por la pandemia de COVID-19 en un solo año fueron de una magnitud similar a los que suelen ocurrir durante un periodo de cuatro a cinco años. A finales de 2021 prevalecían desequilibrios considerables entre socios comerciales y productos, y no se recuperaron todas las pérdidas acumuladas de las fuertes bajas anteriores. La heterogeneidad de las repercusiones comerciales y de los cambios en los flujos respectivos entre productos, fuentes y destinos despierta gran incertidumbre y costos de ajuste e implica brindar incentivos adicionales para que los consumidores, las empresas y los gobiernos adopten nuevas estrategias de mitigación de riesgos o intensifiquen las actuales.

English
  • 27 Aug 2021
  • OECD
  • Pages: 16

La pandemia de COVID-19 causó trastornos en la educación en todo el mundo. A medida que el primer gran impacto pasa, se emprende la planificación en dos periodos: los retos a corto plazo en el regreso a la escuela y los retos en los próximos 18 a 24 meses, mientras los sistemas construyen la resiliencia y la adaptabilidad para el futuro.

English, Japanese

Es fundamental un enfoque integral de la educación — que aborde las necesidades de aprendizaje, sociales y emocionales de los alumnos — especialmente en tiempos de crisis. El cierre de escuelas debido al COVID-19 significa que los estudiantes de diversos entornos con mayor riesgo de alta vulnerabilidad tienen menos probabilidades de recibir el apoyo y los servicios complementarios que necesitan, y podría incrementar la brecha entre alumnos que experimentan mayores dificultades y los que no, podría aumentar. Los cierres pueden tener efectos considerables en el sentido de pertenencia que tengan los alumnos hacia la escuela y en su propia autoestima, elementos fundamentales para la inclusión en la educación.

Este Informe de política describe las iniciativas de los países miembros de la OCDE para hacer frente a las diferentes necesidades de los estudiantes vulnerables durante la pandemia. Más allá del cierre de escuelas, también se examina la cuestión de su reapertura, presentando las medidas actuales de los países y proporcionando indicaciones políticas destinadas a garantizar que la pandemia no obstaculice aún más la inclusión de los estudiantes vulnerables en los sistemas educativos.

English

La crisis por COVID-19 ha forzado a las escuelas al cierre temporal en 188 países, lo que ha generado una interrupción abrupta del proceso de aprendizaje de más de 1.7 miles de millones de niños, jóvenes y sus familias. Durante este tiempo, fueron implementadas soluciones de aprendizaje a distancia con el objetivo de asegurar la continuidad de la educación, el debate actual se enfoca en cuánto han aprendido los estudiantes durante el cierre de las escuelas. Sin embargo, mientras que la potencial pérdida de aprendizaje puede ser temporal, otros efectos que acontecen en la ausencia de la educación tradicional, tal como el freno a las aspiraciones educativas o la desvinculación del sistema escolar, tendrán impacto a largo plazo en los resultados educativos de los estudiantes. Este efecto de “histéresis” en la educación requiere de especial atención; en este artículo se destaca una estrategia dual que busca redirigir a los estudiantes desertores de regreso a las escuelas, y de esta manera aminorar el abandono escolar en caso de futuros confinamientos.

English, French

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