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Education at a Glance is the authoritative source for data on the state of education around the world. It provides information on the structure, finances and performance of education systems across OECD countries and partner economies. More than 100 charts and tables in this publication – as well as much more data available online – provide key information on the output of educational institutions; the impact of learning across countries; access, participation and progression in education; the financial resources invested in education; and teachers, the learning environment and the organisation of schools.
The 2022 edition focuses on tertiary education, looking at the rise of tertiary attainment and the associated benefits for individuals and for societies. It also considers the costs of tertiary education and how spending on education is divided across levels of government and between the state and individuals. A specific chapter is dedicated to the COVID crisis and the shift from crisis management to recovery. Two new indicators on professional development for teachers and school heads and on the profile of academic staff complement this year's edition.
In contrast to falling rates in low density peri-urban and rural remote areas, high density peri-urban areas in Switzerland recorded double the rate of labour productivity growth than the national average. This report examines the Swiss regional innovation system and how it can boost productivity growth in rural regions by enhancing innovation. It also puts a special focus on the agri-food sector to improve the agricultural innovation system.
Economic regulators are key to the performance of network sectors such as energy, e-communications, transport and water. They regulate and supervise to ensure sectors that can efficiently deliver essential services for the benefit of society. Operating from a unique position in relation to consumers, operators and government, they provide evidence-based and objective decision making that can build trust in the regulatory system and public institutions. A crucial factor in their ability to do this is their governance, including how they are resourced. Resourcing arrangements can make or break regulators’ effectiveness. Constraints in their funding or in their autonomy to manage resources may limit regulators’ agility or capacity to act. Where these constraints are significant, they may undermine the regulator’s ability to fulfil their mandates. This report discusses the implications of funding and staff arrangements for the autonomy, agility, accountability and transparency of regulators in the energy, e-communications, transport and water sectors. It identifies trends, challenges, opportunities and good practices, drawing upon survey responses from 57 economic regulators across 31 countries.
Society’s dependence on space infrastructure is at a critical juncture. Public and private actors worldwide are planning to launch tens of thousands of satellites into Earth’s orbit in the next five years. This will greatly expand and enrich the use of space resources, but it will also result in more crowded orbits and greater risk of damage from satellite collision and space debris. As satellite launches continue to multiply and concerns grow, the long-term sustainability of space-based infrastructure on orbit and beyond is set to emerge as an increasingly important space policy issue of the 21st century. This publication takes stock of the growing socio-economic dependence of our modern societies on space assets, and the general threats to space-based infrastructure from debris in particular. Notably, it provides fresh insights into the value of space-based infrastructure and the potential costs generated by space debris, drawing on new academic research developed especially for the OECD project on the economics of space sustainability.
In the first half of 2022, many electricity markets continued to experience skyrocketing prices, particularly in Europe, reflecting deep uncertainties over both fossil fuel supplies and the economic outlook. Russia’s invasion of Ukraine shattered any hope of energy prices declining in the near term following the strong increases seen in the second half of 2021. In Europe, the situation prompted heightened ambitions and strengthened policies to advance clean energy transitions and reduce dependency on fuel imports. But in the short term, it also resulted in a partial return to coal-fired electricity generation. Sluggish economic growth is expected to dampen global electricity demand growth in 2022 and 2023 to less than half the rate seen in 2021. Despite gas-to-coal switching and low nuclear power plant availability in Europe, global electricity sector emissions may decline slightly in 2022 and 2023 – reflecting a combination of slowing power demand and displacement of fossil fuels by renewables.
This July 2022 update of the IEA Electricity Market Report presents our latest forecasts for global electricity demand, supply and emissions through 2023. In light of Russia’s invasion of Ukraine, we also provide a special focus on the situation in Europe, discussing recent developments and future plans.
This report was prepared on the basis of the framework for collaboration established by the International Energy Agency (IEA) and the Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources (MEMR) of Indonesia on the topic of power system enhancement and renewable energy integration, and in support of the implementation of the upcoming Presidential Decree on renewable energy. It is part of the assistance provided by the IEA towards Indonesia’s efforts to reform its energy sector and is consistent with IEA’s forthcoming Energy Sector Roadmap to Net Zero Emissions in Indonesia. The overarching objective of the assignment was to assist Indonesia in tackling short-term power system challenges, by achieving key targets such as reaching a 23% share of renewable energy in the national electricity mix by 2025 in a secure and affordable fashion, and by making grids progressively smarter. The assignment included the organisation of a number of workshops for Indonesian stakeholders and a techno-economic study performed by the IEA. It benefited from the support of the state-owned utility Perusahaan Listrik Negara (PLN). This public report summarises the information gathered from the workshops and presents the results of the study in a set of recommendations for Indonesia.
Costa Rica busca consolidar sus logros democráticos para salvaguardar la confianza en el gobierno y desarrollar una resiliencia económica. Este Estudio de Integridad analiza cómo Costa Rica puede traducir su reciente Estrategia Nacional de Integridad y Prevención de la Corrupción en una política de integridad concreta y coherente. También revisa el marco para gestionar conflictos de intereses y considera la mejor manera de abordar la falta de regulación sobre lobby y promover la integridad y la transparencia en todas las actividades destinadas a influir en la toma de decisiones públicas. Finalmente, el Estudio de Integridad revisa el régimen disciplinario de Costa Rica con miras a reforzar la credibilidad y eficacia de sus políticas de integridad.
Gender equality and environmental sustainability are gaining political momentum as global challenges that require urgent action at the national and international levels. Both figure prominently, albeit with limited interlinkages, in the United Nations Agenda 2030, and gender equality considerations are slowly making their way into international environmental and climate commitments. An integrated approach to gender equality and environmental sustainability – i.e. recognising the gender-environment nexus – could help to alleviate limitations to gender equality and women’s economic empowerment and enhance their roles in environmental sustainability and green growth. Likewise, enhancing gender equality, and women’s economic empowerment and decision-making, can lead to better environmental and climate outcomes and policies.
This report observes the gender-environment nexus in the Greek policy framework. It assesses environmental and climate policies through a gender lens, and gender equality policies through an environmental lens. It focuses mainly on policies and measures that could support women’s economic empowerment in environment-related sectors; women’s environmental leadership and decision making; and mainstreaming gender equality and environmental sustainability in policy tools. It proposes a series of recommendations that, if taken on board, could support integrating the gender-environment nexus into Greece’s national policies.
Occupational exposure limits (OELs) are derived internationally by many government agencies and professional organisations. The absence of a globally harmonised approach contributes towards differences in derivation approaches and resulting OEL values. The purpose of this report is to summarise the results of a survey of OECD stakeholders on OEL derivation activities, with the goal of highlighting similarities and differences. The report presents roles, responsibilities and scope of the responding organisations; methods of OEL development; successes and challenges of OEL development; and interest in and potential areas of focus for international harmonisation of OELs. The discussions within the report can be used to inform potential priorities or opportunities for international collaboration or case studies.
The impact of the work of supreme audit institutions (SAIs) largely depends on the ability and willingness of the audited entities to implement the changes suggested in the audit reports issued by the SAIs. Applying behavioural insights (BI) can help SAIs promote the uptake of their audit reports and recommendations. BI is a perspective based on psychology, cognitive science, and social science that takes into account how humans actually make choices, and can be used to help design better policies. The report analyses how the SAI of Chile, the Comptroller General of the Republic (CGR), produces audit reports and monitors their follow-up. Based on this analysis, the report identifies and discusses challenges hampering the timely follow-up and identifies opportunities to use behavioural insights to address them. Ultimately, a behaviourally informed review of the auditing and follow-up process could help significantly improve the added value of the CGR’s work and thus the effectiveness and efficiency of the public administration in Chile.
O Comité de Ajuda ao Desenvolvimento (CAD) da OCDE realiza exames pelos pares a cada um dos membros em intervalos regulares de cinco a seis anos. Os exames visam melhorar a qualidade e a eficácia da cooperação para o desenvolvimento dos membros, realçando as boas práticas e recomendando melhorias. Portugal mobiliza todo o seu conhecimento especializado governamental, com grande ênfase na apropriação pelos países parceiros. Com base em relações bilaterais estreitas e de longa data, concentra o seu financiamento nos países com mais necessidades. Através de um processo de sensibilização internacional eficaz o país é reconhecido como um campeão em matéria de cooperação triangular e durante a sua Presidência do Conselho da União Europeia (UE) promoveu o consenso entre os Estados Membros sobre questões como o reforço do compromisso da Equipa Europa para com o desenvolvimento humano. No entanto, Portugal pode tirar maior partido da ampla participação de atores estatais e não-estatais na sua cooperação para o desenvolvimento. Este exame pelos pares apresenta um conjunto de recomendações para melhorar a coordenação intergovernamental, conjugar esforços bilaterais, aumentar o enfoque nos resultados e tomar medidas para aumentar a Ajuda Pública ao Desenvolvimento (APD). Esta versão abreviada contém o sumário executivo e as recomendações do CAD a Portugal; do Exame pelos Pares da Cooperação para o Desenvolvimento da OCDE: Portugal 2022.
As a small, open economy, Mauritius needs a well-performing regulatory system that provides necessary protections while enabling the development of trade and investment and limiting administrative burdens. A robust regulatory impact assessment (RIA) framework can enhance Mauritius’ business environment and attractiveness as a trade and investment partner. In particular, RIA can help Mauritius strengthen its rule-making framework, for example by increasing scrutiny and taking a more evidence-based approach to rulemaking.
This report presents OECD recommendations on to how establish a RIA framework in Mauritius. These recommendations are based upon an analysis of the country’s strengths and challenges, as well as extensive engagement with stakeholders. The recommendations also draw on lessons learnt from RIA implementation in a range of countries and an initial benchmarking of RIA-related best practices and guidance material from various relevant jurisdictions.
To realise Colombia’s clean energy ambitions and enable the necessary mobilisation of finance and investment, the government has set forth a number of important policy strategies, including the 2018 Green Growth Policy, the 2019 National Circular Economy Strategy and the forthcoming 2022 Energy Transition Policy. These high-level policies all note the role clean energy solutions like sustainable bioenergy and waste-to-energy can play in supporting decarbonisation objectives. These solutions can also achieve a number of other socioeconomic ambitions, including improved reliability of energy supply, improved access to affordable and reliable energy in areas that are not connected to the national electricity grid, and reduced amounts of waste going to capacity-limited landfills. This report aims to support Colombia’s renewable energy ambitions, focusing on current clean energy trends, opportunities for bioenergy and measures that can increase finance and investment in those solutions. Through five case studies from Brazil, Chile, Colombia, India and Turkey, the report also considers the enabling environment and lessons learnt from bioenergy developments in different countries.
The Economic Outlook for Southeast Asia, China and India is a regular publication on regional economic growth and development in Emerging Asia. It focuses on the economic conditions of Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) members: Brunei Darussalam, Cambodia, Indonesia, Lao PDR, Malaysia, Myanmar, the Philippines, Singapore, Thailand and Viet Nam, as well as China and India. It comprises two main parts. The first part presents the regional economic monitor, depicting the economic outlook and macroeconomic challenges in the region. The second part consists of special thematic chapters addressing a major issue facing the region. The 2022 edition addresses financing sustainable recovery from the COVID-19 pandemic. The COVID-19 pandemic is proving to be extremely costly, both economically and socially and sustainable financing solutions are crucial for an equitable and inclusive recovery. The report explores how governments can obtain additional financing by harnessing bond markets, and use green, social and sustainability bonds to achieve policy objectives.
México se está recobrando de una pandemia que ha tenido un profundo impacto económico y social. Los trabajadores informales, las mujeres y los jóvenes se han visto especialmente afectados, lo que ha agravado retos sociales preexistentes. El sólido marco de política macroeconómica de México ha salvaguardado la estabilidad macroeconómica. Sin embargo, las perspectivas de crecimiento a medio plazo se han debilitado y el ritmo de crecimiento en las dos últimas décadas ha sido bajo. La pobreza y la desigualdad entre regiones todavía son elevadas. Factores como la informalidad, la exclusión financiera o la corrupción han obstaculizado el crecimiento de la productividad. Las bajas tasas de participación femenina y una inversión débil desde 2015 también han afectado a las perspectivas de crecimiento a medio plazo. Mantener y fortalecer el sólido marco de política macroeconómica de México es clave para la estabilidad. La capacidad de la política fiscal para suavizar los ciclos económicos y apoyar el crecimiento en las fases de recesión puede reforzarse, ampliando así el margen para fortalecer la inversión pública. Reactivar la inversión privada y dar impulso al bajo crecimiento de la productividad son prioridades fundamentales. Ello conlleva la necesidad de acometer reformas de gran alcance con el fin de mejorar la regulación aplicable a las empresas, intensificar la competencia, reducir la informalidad, seguir luchando contra la corrupción y efectuar la transición hacia la neutralidad de carbono. Ampliar el acceso a los servicios financieros e impulsar la digitalización comportarían una mayor igualdad de oportunidades y contribuirían a potenciar el crecimiento.
CAPÍTULO ESPECIAL: AMPLIAR EL ACCESO A SERVICIOS FINANCIEROS
One of a series of studies on vocational education and training (VET), this report focuses on how international evidence can inform reforms of the VET system in Brazil. The reforms aim to considerably expand provision of initial VET, tripling enrolment between 2014-2024. Today, few upper-secondary students participate in VET in Brazil as compared to many OECD countries. The reform is a welcome initiative, provided that the expansion is coupled with investments in quality. Expansion of VET is likely to diversify the students attending VET programmes and increase the demand for VET teachers, and schools will need the support to make this work while ensuring that the programmes they offer are relevant for the labour market. By international standards, employers in Brazil provide limited input into VET policy and very few VET students have an opportunity of training with employers, and the reforms could be an opportunity to strengthen their involvement. Moreover, the reform could reinforce assessment strategies, as a lack of reliable assessment may decrease the value of VET qualifications. To support reform efforts in Brazil, this report brings in international evidence and discusses how other countries are addressing various related challenges encountered in their VET systems.
El Estudio examina la recuperación económica de Colombia tras la crisis de COVID-19, así como los retos para asegurar un crecimiento más fuerte y sostenible. El Estudio también analiza en profundidad el sistema de protección social y discute las reformas que podrían mejorar la sostenibilidad de las finanzas públicas, impulsar el crecimiento de la productividad y mejorar las oportunidades para todos los colombianos.
Spanish society values families and family life highly, but the way that families look and live has been changing drastically over the past decades. From being one of the countries with the highest fertility rates in Europe, Spain now has the lowest rate in the region and the legalisation of divorce and social acceptance of co-habitation has led to a decline in the traditional nuclear family model. At the same time, the share of mothers who are employed increased by more than 50% over the past two decades, though it remains below the OECD average. While family law has evolved quite strongly alongside these societal changes, family policy – i.e. the combination of benefits, services, tax breaks and leave arrangements that support family members in raising and providing care to minor children and other dependent persons – has undergone some changes but few major reforms. This report suggests ways to adapt Spain’s family policy to incorporate family diversity into the national policy framework, improve family well-being, reduce child poverty and make family life easier for all.
The year 2021 placed exceptional demands on electricity markets around the world. Strong economic growth, combined with more extreme weather conditions than in 2020, including a colder than average winter, boosted global electricity demand by more than 6% – the largest increase since the recovery from the financial crisis in 2010. The fast rebound in overall energy demand strained supply chains for coal and natural gas, pushing up wholesale electricity prices. Despite the impressive growth of renewable power, electricity generation from coal and gas hit record levels. As a result, the global electricity sector’s annual carbon dioxide emissions leaped to a new all-time high after having decreased for the previous two years.Building on our analysis of these recent events, the January 2022 edition of the IEA Electricity Market Report presents our forecasts for demand, supply and emissions in global electricity markets through 2024. While renewables are set to meet the vast majority of the increase in global electricity demand in the coming years, this trend would only result in a plateauing of emissions from electricity generation. That is insufficient for the power sector to fulfil its critical role as a leading force in the decarbonisation of economies around the world.