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Peer reviews of competition law and policy are a valuable tool to reform and strengthen a country’s competition framework. This peer review of the Dominican Republic presents the evolution of its competition regime over the last few years and assesses the effectiveness of its current competition law and policy. It provides recommendations to help the Dominican Republic strengthen its competition regime and institutions, developed and discussed at the Peer Review examination carried out during the 2023 OECD-IDB Latin American and Caribbean Competition Forum.

Peer reviews of competition law and policy are a valuable tool to reform and strengthen a country’s competition framework. This peer review of the Eurasian Economic Union presents assesses its competition law and policy.

Croatia’s strategic position along the Adriatic Sea has historically positioned it as a key player in the global shipbuilding industry. Despite a significant decline in ship production by 75% in CGT following the sector’s privatisation in 2013, in time with its accession to the EU, the industry remains significant to the country’s economy. Shipbuilding in Croatia has notably shifted towards high-quality niche markets, with a special focus on constructing yachts and polar cruise ships and growing demand for environmentally friendly vessels, including electrically powered and alternative fuel-capable vessels. Employment in Croatian shipyards has significantly decreased since privatisation and challenges in attracting and retaining skilled labour persist. The maritime sector's shift towards net-zero emissions, coupled with collaborative projects within the EU, presents opportunities for technological progress and an increased orderbook.

Denmark has a long history in marine industry. Although newbuilding activity has decreased significantly since the late 1970s, based on its long history and well-established expertise within the industry, Denmark continues to have a strong maritime value chain including marine equipment, ship design, ship repair and finance. After the closure of shipyards, the yards have been transformed into industrial innovation sites. The Danish maritime industry’s competitiveness is shaped by its historically strong value chain including marine equipment industry and its several public-private partnerships that contribute to innovations. Several partnerships support decarbonisation in the maritime sector, notably the “Green Ship of the Future” which focuses on exploring new technologies for zero-emission maritime transport and involve many partners from the maritime industry. As in many other economies, securing workforce for the maritime industry has become one of the main challenges in Denmark. To attract young talents, maritime companies and associations in Denmark develop industry-university cooperation such as private-funded research projects and internship programs.

The Dutch shipbuilding and marine equipment industries are part of a maritime cluster of about 17 200 Dutch maritime companies that also includes ports, the offshore industry, shipping, dredging, maritime services, fishing, inland shipping, naval activities and the watersports industry. In 2017, the maritime cluster accounted for 3.1% of gross domestic product (GDP) of the Netherlands. In the 1980s, the Dutch shipbuilding industry started to focus on high-tech, specialised vessels. Dutch shipyards produce a variety of vessel types, including dry cargos, dredgers, offshore service vessels, tugs, work/repair vessels, tankers, gas carriers, superyachts, cruise ships, passenger ferries, fully cellular containers, bulk carriers and roll-on/roll-off vessels. The Dutch Maritime Strategy 2015-2025 lists policy priorities and actions to promote the maritime and logistics sectors. The strategy takes into account global economic, demographic, geopolitical, ecological and security policy trends affecting the Dutch maritime sector.

The Finnish maritime industry has evolved over five development waves that have made the industry innovative and technologically advanced. Finnish yards are very dependent on the global market given the relatively small size of Finland’s domestic market and the fact that only special vessels are ordered by domestic operators, such as passenger ferries, ice breakers and military ships. Finland’s shipbuilding industry is currently very active in two broad market segments: cruise/passenger ships and Arctic and specialised vessels. Finland belongs to the small circle of four European countries that construct very large cruise ships. As Finnish trade and welfare depend on exports, and as its harbours freeze in winter, the country positioned itself to be the centre of Arctic expertise with the continuous development of ice breaking and special vessels production. Finland has a wide network of companies involved in manufacturing equipment for ships, offshore and other marine activities.

The German shipbuilding industry is a relatively small component of the German economy as a whole but it is an important economic activity in the Baltic and North Sea area, where shipyards are concentrated. Most of Germany’s shipyards are relatively small and family-owned, compared to state-owned yards or yards that are part of big shipyard groups in other countries. The supply industry has about three to four times more employees than the ship yards and is located throughout Germany. The German shipbuilding industry has undergone significant changes during the past 25 years. Following reunification in 1990, special government-led programmes were set up to help restructure, modernise and privatise the yards in East Germany. The global financial crisis in 2007/2008 put further pressure on the industry, resulting in a series of bankruptcies and consolidation. The shipbuilding industry has become more specialised, focusing on products which are custom built and require excellent system integration skills. With respect to ocean-going vessels, the industry is a world leader in the construction of large cruise ships. German yards are also focusing attention on other customised products, such as research vessels, ferries, patrol boats, mega-yachts.

With the rise of the East Asian countries, Italian shipbuilding industry steered its rudder to a more specialized production of complex ship types, in particular cruise ships. Italian shipbuilders have responded with agility to various economic challenges which affected the shipbuilding industry and continued to expand their activities. Italy, one of the world’s leading producers of cruise and passenger ships, built 36% for cruise ships in the world between 2013 and 2022. With a strong supply chain involving local enterprises, the Italian shipbuilding industry has maintained an advanced position in shipbuilding technology, enabling it to support the domestic economy and employment.

Japan is the third largest shipbuilding economy in the world. There are currently over 1 000 shipyards in Japan. Some of these yards are privately owned (i.e. unlisted) individual enterprises, while others form part of larger private or public (listed) companies that operate multiple yards. Japan’s shipbuilders exist within a wider maritime cluster that provides crucial upstream and downstream products and services. Internationally, shipyards are increasingly operating as final assembly facilities, with 50-70% (and sometimes more) of the value added coming from external subcontractors and suppliers. Similarly in Japan, the marine equipment sector is an important part of the maritime cluster, as is the research, development and design sector. In addition, shipbuilding also generates activity related to skill development and training, regulatory compliance, and international marketing and information exchange.

The Korean shipbuilding industry made a significant contribution to the country’s rapid industrialisation in the post-World War 2 period, and it is now one of the top global players, leading by value and second only to China by volume. Korean shipbuilders’ output approximately tripled from 2000 until 2011, when the effects of the global financial crisis began to be reflected in yard activity, and the Korean industry accounted for 35% of global vessel completions (in gross tonne terms) in 2013. The shipbuilding industry forms an integral part of a wider maritime cluster, with marine equipment and steel comprising key inputs. The industry produces a wide variety of shiptypes, but there is a significant share of high-value, large vessels, such as container ships, very large crude oil tankers, and gas tankers. The prominence of high-value outputs has been supported by the industry’s R&D spending and skilled workforce.

Norway is a very open country where labour costs are higher than in most other maritime economies and where labour costs in the maritime sector are higher than the average of manufacturing sectors in Norway’s competitive advantage is based on high investment in research and development. The Norwegian shipbuilding industry is part of a maritime cluster which also includes international shipping companies (6th largest fleet in the world), equipment manufacturers, classification societies, ship designers, brokers, and providers of insurance and financial services. In the context of the lower demand for offshore vessels, the Norwegian shipbuilding industry focuses on the production of other vessel types including fishing vessels and fish carrying vessels and the upgrading of other segments, such as specialized vessels and workboats.

Poland has a long and dynamic history in the shipbuilding industry. The shipbuilding industry in Poland was affected by social and political changes in the late 1980s since most of Poland’s shipyards were owned by the State. Ship completions declined following the 2008 financial crisis and the withdrawal of government subsidies to state-owned shipyards in line with the EU’s state aid rules. Poland’s market share in global ship completions peaked at 2.6% in 2000 and decreased sharply in the 2010s to reach 0.1% in 2020. Since 2009, Polish shipyards have moved from the construction of new ships to ship repair and maintenance. Gdansk Shiprepair Yard Remontowa S.A. is the largest repair shipyard in Europe. The Ministry of Infrastructure announced the Strategy for Responsible Development (SRD) for enhancing the competitiveness of Polish shipbuilding industry in 2017. The Strategy focuses on increasing research and development investments, the modernization of shipyards, and the increase of employment in the sector. As in many other economies, labour and skills shortages have become one of the main challenges for the shipbuilding industry in Poland.

There are more than 200 shipbuilding and repair companies in Portugal, most of them small- to medium-sized firms engaging mainly in ship repair and maintenance. Some are very small facilities, with minimal activity, focused on local clients, predominantly in repair work. The Portuguese government considered that the shipbuilding industry in Portugal is limited to around five yards with the infrastructure and conditions to compete on the global market in commercial construction.

Romania’s shipbuilding industry, with its roots going back to the early 1900s and a strategic location at the Black Sea and Danube River, plays an important role in the Southeast region’s economy and employment. Romanian shipyards construct a diverse set of vessel types from tugboats to navy vessels. However, the industry has seen a decline, with Romania’s EU ship completion share dropping from 21% in 2016 to just 2% by 2022. Challenges include geopolitical tensions escalating input costs. Nonetheless, opportunities lie in collaborative projects for increased innovation and supporting the green transition in the EU. Emphasizing workforce development and modernizing facilities for eco-friendly vessel construction could help rejuvenate Romania’s shipbuilding sector, further aligning it with environmental trends and technological advancements.

During the 2000s, the Turkish shipbuilding industry witnessed substantial growth, driven by its exports and dynamic financing by local banks and economic stability. Turkish shipyards focused on building relatively small oil and chemical tankers during this period.In 2008, the Global Financial Crisis led Turkish shipbuilding groups to look for new areas of specialisation. Thus, Turkish shipbuilding groups began to reorient their main activities into ship repair, ship scrapping, and the building of niche ships such as alternative fueled-vessels. With the significant decline in new construction demands worldwide, they focused on tailor-made ships, notably for European buyers. Turkish smaller yards tend now to be multipurpose, offering conversion, repair and maintenance services as well as the building of new ships.