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Given the salient role that electricity plays in modern economies, the task of ensuring electricity security is a top priority for policy makers. The process is an extensive and complicated one that involves careful consideration of costs and benefits. This chapter summarises the steps involved in developing a framework for electricity security. It defines outages, describes approaches to assessing how much they cost, and outlines the institutional responsibilities to prevent and/or react to them. In doing so, it lays out the existing approaches available to policy makers and the challenges they face in creating electricity security frameworks, including clarifying the costs and benefits, establishing reliability planning structures, and assigning institutional responsibility for various tasks. It then previews how policy makers and other stakeholders need to adapt frameworks for electricity security in the face of major trends affecting the sector – namely, the clean energy transition, cyberthreats and climate change.
This survey report is the eighth edition since the data collection exercise was first established in 2011. The scope of this report covers 100 public and private pension funds from 40 countries. Brazil, India, Indonesia, Nigeria, Mozambique, Peru, the Russian Federation, and South Africa are amongst the non-OECD countries included in the survey report. This survey is based on a qualitative and quantitative questionnaire sent directly to large pension funds (LPFs) and public pension reserve funds (PPRFs). It helps to provide detailed investment information and insights which complement the aggregated data on portfolio investments gathered by the OECD at a national level through the Global Pension Statistics and Global Insurance Statistics projects.
The purpose of this review is help policymakers, energy sector stakeholders, anti-corruption bodies, stateowned enterprises (SOEs) and law enforcement bodies identify trends and good practices, as well as common problems in the energy sector and make informed decisions for a corruption free energy sector.
This report provides an overview of measures taken by Latin American governments to improve integrity and prevent corruption in state-owned enterprises (SOEs), based on the results of an OECD survey submitted to the public bodies responsible for the ownership and co-ordination of national SOEs in all countries that participate in the Latin American Network on Corporate Governance of State Owned Enterprises (“SOE Network”). The main goal of this report is to guide Latin American jurisdictions toward identifying concrete rules and practices that they could adopt in order to further align themselves with the OECD Guidelines on Anti-Corruption and Integrity in State-Owned Enterprises (“ACI Guidelines”).
This brochure is published within the framework of the Scheme for the Application of International Standards for Fruit and Vegetables established by OECD in 1962. It comprises explanatory notes and illustrations to facilitate the uniform interpretation of the current apples standard. It demonstrates the quality parameters on high quality photographs. Thus it is a valuable tool for the inspection authorities, professional bodies and traders interested in international trade in apples. This brochure is available in electronic format only.
Relevance, coherence, effectiveness, efficiency, impact, and sustainability are widely used evaluation criteria, particularly in international development co-operation. They help to determine the merit or worth of various interventions, such as strategies, policies, programmes or projects. This guidance aims to help evaluators and others to better understand those criteria, and improve their use. It starts by describing what they are, and how they are meant to be used. Then the definitions and concepts underpinning each criterion are explained. Finally, examples provide the reader with concrete ideas for using them.
The criteria were originally laid out in the early 2000s by the Network on Development Evaluation (EvalNet) of the OECD Development Assistance Committee (DAC). Although they have been widely used in evaluation, and beyond, this document is the first to comprehensively explore the concepts in detail, explain their intended use and offer practical guidance. It captures current thinking and best practice in evaluation, drawing on the inputs of internationally renowned evaluation experts from EvalNet and beyond.
This manual has been produced in close collaboration by six organisations — the European Commission, the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), the United Nations Human Settlements Programme (UN-Habitat), the International Labour Organization (ILO), the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) and The World Bank. It presents a harmonised methodology to facilitate international statistical comparisons and to classify the entire territory of a country along an urban-rural continuum. The degree of urbanisation classification defines cities, towns and semi-dense areas, and rural areas.
This manual is intended to complement and not replace the definitions used by national statistical offices (NSOs) and ministries. It has been designed principally as a guide for data producers, suppliers and statisticians so that they have the necessary information to implement the methodology and ensure coherency within their data collections. It may also be of interest to users of subnational statistics so they may better understand, interpret and use official subnational statistics for taking informed decisions and policymaking.
This report examines and determines the most relevant cases for artificial intelligence (AI) use in a transport planning context for crash prevention on an entire road network. It explores the possibility of using computer vision to acquire relevant information and the capability of computer models to map high-risk locations. It offers recommendations to stakeholders on the development and appropriate use of life-saving AI solutions.
The report can help policy makers to assess the implications of these new technologies and to identify the benefits and risks related to their use. It suggests policy responses that that are intended to support AI innovation in finance while ensuring that its use is consistent with promoting financial stability, market integrity and competition, while protecting financial consumers. Emerging risks from the deployment of AI techniques need to be identified and mitigated to support and promote the use of responsible AI. Existing regulatory and supervisory requirements may need to be clarified and sometimes adjusted, as appropriate, to address some of the perceived incompatibilities of existing arrangements with AI applications.
Over the past decades, governments have gradually adopted more rigorous environmental policies to tackle challenges associated with pressing environmental issues, such as climate change. The ambition of these policies is, however, often tempered by their perceived negative effects on the economy. The empirical evidence in this volume – covering a decade of OECD analysis – shows that environmental policies have had relatively small effects on economic outcomes such as employment, investment, trade and productivity. At the same time, they have been effective at reducing emissions from industry. The policies can however generate winners and losers across firms, industries and regions: while the least productive firms from high-polluting sectors are adversely affected, more productive firms and low-pollution sectors benefit. Environmental policies can be designed and combined with other policies to compensate workers and industries that may lose and to emphasise their positive impacts.
This profile provides a concise and policy-relevant overview of health and the health system in Austria as part of the broader series of the State of Health in the EU country profiles. It provides a short synthesis of: the health status in the country; the determinants of health, focussing on behavioural risk factors; the organisation of the health system; and the effectiveness, accessibility and resilience of the health system. This edition has a special focus on the impact of COVID‑19.
This profile is the joint work of the OECD and the European Observatory on Health Systems and Policies, in co-operation with the European Commission.
Oil and gas continue to dominate Azerbaijan’s economy and provide most of its export and government revenue. While these resources have sharply raised the country’s living standards since the late 1990s and remain plentiful, the long-term outlook for this economic model is uncertain. Oil production is declining and major oil and gas importing countries have pledged to reduce greenhouse gas emissions to net-zero by mid-century, implying little demand three decades from now for oil or gas without carbon capture and storage.
This report assesses the energy sector and related economic challenges facing Azerbaijan. It proposes several ways to respond by increasing the efficiency and diversity of domestic energy supply and use. The overriding recommendation is a gradual transition to competitive markets with significant private sector participation and energy prices that reflect the cost of production. The withdrawal of subsidies should be accompanied by support measures for those most in need. Such a transition would attract new market entrants and new investments, helping to develop Azerbaijan’s significant solar and wind potential, and limiting greenhouse gas emissions.
These recommendations are in line with efforts already underway in Azerbaijan. Prompted by the oil price shock in 2014-15, the government has recently drafted proposals for electricity and gas market reforms, as well as laws on energy efficiency and renewable energy. The country’s first specific energy strategy is also nearing completion. The report encourages Azerbaijan to move swiftly to adopt all these proposals and implement them effectively to ensure secure and sustainable energy in the future.
This brochure is published within the framework of the Scheme for the Application of International Standards for Fruit and Vegetables established by OECD in 1962. It comprises explanatory notes and illustrations to facilitate the uniform interpretation of the current beans standard. It demonstrates the quality parameters on high quality photographs. Thus it is a valuable tool for the inspection authorities, professional bodies and traders interested in international trade in beans. This brochure is available in electronic format only.
This profile provides a concise and policy-relevant overview of health and the health system in Belgium as part of the broader series of the State of Health in the EU country profiles. It provides a short synthesis of: the health status in the country; the determinants of health, focussing on behavioural risk factors; the organisation of the health system; and the effectiveness, accessibility and resilience of the health system. This edition has a special focus on the impact of COVID‑19.
This profile is the joint work of the OECD and the European Observatory on Health Systems and Policies, in co-operation with the European Commission.
Understanding the accident at the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant is important for safe and timely decommissioning of the reactors. This objective, together with the development of better computer codes for analysis of severe accidents, was the aim of the benchmark study conducted under the auspices of the OECD Nuclear Energy Agency. Through the diversity of the modelling codes and approaches, and the use of parametric studies, it has been possible to identify the more likely scenarios that can fit with the limited data available from the accident. The insights gained from the project will help guide research into severe accident behaviour, improve severe accident computer codes, develop accident mitigation and response at nuclear power plants, support regulatory oversight related to severe accidents, and inform policies on the development and deployment of nuclear technology.
This report provides an assessment of public governance and territorial development in Polish local self-government units (LSGUs). It offers key recommendations to governments at the national, regional and local levels in Poland on how to enhance development, improve service delivery and strengthen management processes within LSGUs. It addresses eight key thematic areas, including strategic planning, co-ordination across administrative units and policy sectors, multi-level governance and investment capacity, the use of monitoring and evaluation evidence for decision-making, budgeting, strategic workforce management, open government, and regulatory policy to reduce administrative burden and simplify public procurement. The report proposes a classification of LSGUs in Poland based on OECD typology, in order to reflect the economic functionality of specific regions/territories as a means to help LSGUs design more effective local development policies. A self-assessment tool for LSGUs in Poland complements the report and provides key indicators that allow counties and municipalities to assess their main strengths and weaknesses on public governance and local development practices, plan how to better serve citizens, enhance local sustainable development and engage with stakeholders to build a collective vision and plan of action.
Over the last few years, social and emotional skills have been rising on the education policy agenda and in the public debate. Policy makers and education practitioners are seeking ways to complement the focus on academic learning, with attention to social and emotional skill development. Social and emotional skills are a subset of an individual’s abilities, attributes and characteristics important for individual success and social functioning. Together, they encompass a comprehensive set of skills essential for students to be able to succeed at school, at work and fully participate in society as active citizens.
The benefits of developing children's social-emotional skills go beyond cognitive development and academic outcomes; they are also important drivers of mental health and labour market prospects. The ability of citizens to adapt, be resourceful, respect and work well with others, and to take personal and collective responsibility is increasingly becoming the hallmark of a well-functioning society. The OECD's Survey of Social and Emotional Skills (SSES) is one of the first international efforts to collect data from students, parents and teachers on the social and emotional skills of students at ages 10 and 15. This report presents the first results from this survey. It describes students' social and emotional skills and how they relate to individual, family, and school characteristics. It also examines broader policy and socio-economic contexts related to these skills, and sheds light on ways to help education leaders and policy makers monitor and foster students’ social and emotional skills.
The arrival of the COVID-19 pandemic in Central Asia in early 2020 had a profound social and economic impact on a region still recovering from the effects of the 2008-09 Global Financial Crisis and the 2014-15 commodity price shock. Structural weaknesses linked to both public- and private-sector capacities rendered the Central Asian countries particularly vulnerable to both the economic and public-health impacts of the crisis. In the short-term social and economic recovery will depend on the effectiveness of vaccination campaigns and support measures, but longer-term prospects will require steps to address these weaknesses. An ambitious reform agenda aimed at strengthening the foundations for a private sector-driven recovery is essential. Improvements to the business climate need to be complemented with measures to address longer-term challenges such as digitalisation and climate change. Prospects for recovery in Central Asia will therefore depend on the ability of governments to turn the crisis into an opportunity for deeper reform implementation. This report, part of an ongoing project co-financed by the European Union, explores the macro-economic impacts of the pandemic on the economies of Central Asia and assesses the overall policy responses of governments, including the factors affecting their policy options. The report then identifies four priority policy areas for a strong economic recovery: public revenue management, the business climate, digitalisation, and the green transition. It also explores one specific way to ensure that policies reflect needs of business through an analysis of the contribution of business intermediary organisations (BIOs) to private-sector recovery. It offers specific policy recommendations on these priorities for the region
This report examines how big data from mobile phones and other sources can help to forecast travel demand. It identifies the strengths and potential use-cases for big data in transport modelling and mobility analysis. It also examines potential biases, commercial sensitivities and threats to privacy. The report presents approaches to resolve such issues and offers recommendations for governance arrangements that make data sharing easier.
The report brings together evidence, international experience and policy insights for the design of housing policies. Emphasis is placed on three broad aspects: inclusiveness, efficiency and sustainability. Inclusive access to housing has become increasingly challenging in many OECD countries due to a large extent to rising housing costs, which reflects the failure of housing supply to meet demand, particularly in jobs-rich urban areas. Geographical constraints play a role, but in many cities regulations, including on land-use and zoning provisions, also constrain supply. At the same time, some regulations on tenant-landlord relations can discourage the development of rental markets, pushing up rents. Moreover, the transition to a low-carbon economy poses challenges for a sector that accounts for 17% of CO2 emissions and 37% of fine particulate matter emissions globally. Almost two-thirds of countries worldwide still lack mandatory building energy codes. Frontloading efforts is critical as dwellings have a very long lifespan. The report lays out evidence-based options for concerted policy action to address these challenges, while recognising complementarities and trade-offs amond the different objectives of housing policies. The report is part of the OECD Housing Tookit, which includes an interactive online dashboard of housing indicators and country snapshots.